See also: European history

The Nordic countries are remembered for the Viking Age, a period during the 9th and 10th centuries, when the Norsemen sailed the seas and rivers of Europe, reaching as far as Canada, North Africa, and Central Asia. Before the Viking Age, Northern Europe also has an interesting prehistory, going back to the end of the Ice Age, around 10,000 BC.

Many English-speakers who visit the Nordic countries ask where they can see real Vikings. However, no tribe or nation has ever been called Viking; it is simply the word for "sailor" or "pirate" in Old Norse, a language spoken in Denmark, Norway and Sweden before AD 1000. While some Norsemen travelled overseas for settlement, fishing and commerce, a few pursued a career as bandits or mercenaries (the true Vikings), most remained in Scandinavia, and were, by definition, not Vikings.

When it comes to the other two Nordic countries, Iceland was settled by Norsemen in the 9th century. Finland, as well as northernmost Sweden and Norway, have been populated by the Finns and the Sami people since prehistory. They belong to the Finno-Ugric peoples, with a culture completely different from the Norse, until they were annexed by Sweden and Norway during the 13th and 14th centuries.

Though Norsemen had cruised the Baltic Sea for centuries before, historians consider the Viking Age to begin with the raid at Lindisfarne in AD 793, ending with the Christianization and unification of the kingdoms of Denmark, Norway and Sweden around AD 1000, maybe extending to the Battle of Hastings in 1066.

During the last Ice Age, almost all of Scandinavia was covered with glaciers most of the time, but around 10,000 BC as the temperatures increased, a general retreat of the solid ice cover began. The Norse creation myth, in line with reality, describes the Norsemen's homeland as created from ice; the later story about the world being built by the slain body of Ymir, the Giant. Relieved from the heavy ice cover, the Scandinavian peninsula has been steadily rising since the end of the Ice Age, at some places as much as 1 meter every 100 years. Therefore, the sceneries and coastlines have been changing, and many places that were navigable water in AD 1000 are now dry land today.

Remains from hunters temporarily visiting Scandinavia during short warm epochs in the last Ice Age has been uncovered, but the cave in Karijoki is the only known pre-glacial human settlement in all of Scandinavia.

The first settlers followed the melting ice. Farming and metalworking spread from southern Europe to Scandinavia; however, there are plenty of archaeological sites, with remnants of pottery and rock carvings. The three-age system (stone, bronze and iron age) is actually based on Nordic archaeology, and might be deficient to describe the prehistory of most places except northern Europe.

The inhabitants of Scandinavia comprised many different tribes such as the Swedes, Geats, Gutes (perhaps related to the Goths), Augandzi, Ranii, Halogi, Herules, Jutes and later the Danes, but all shared a somewhat similar Norse culture – except the nomadic and shamanistic Sami – heralding the Norse Gods, speaking the Old Norse language and using a common runic alphabet. Initially they were culturally linked to the many other Germanic tribes in the rest Europe, but when mainland Europe and the British Isles were Christianized during the early Middle Ages, the Norse pagan culture and mythology continued to prevail in Scandinavia.

The Norse never isolated themselves from the world, already early trading with their neighbours and indirectly with far away cultures. They maintained important trade links with both the European Celtic and Slavic tribes and the Roman Empire, exchanging priced goods like amber (see Amber Road) for wine and precious metals and they had long been sought after as mercenaries and guards for the Romans.

During the Migration Period from the 4th to 8th centuries, some tribes migrated south from northern Europe, towards the Mediterranean. Due to lack of reliable sources, the line between fact and fiction is hard to draw. The legendary Goths, who invaded Rome during the 5th century, are believed to have partial descented from southern Scandinavia; either Götaland or Gotland.

A furore Normannorum libera nos, Domine.
"From the fury of the Northmen deliver us, O Lord." – Prayer allegedly said by English monks.

Most Swedish, Norwegian and Danish people relied on local farming, fishing, hunting and some crafts and commerce in the Nordic Iron Age, but with the onset of the Viking Age, and for reasons that are still unclear, large, well-organised expeditions to destinations outside Scandinavia commenced, extending as far as Morocco, Caucasia and Canada. Some of the Norse expeditions in the Viking Age revolved around commerce and exploration, others were more or less pure raids, making the Norse known and feared as Vikings throughout Europe. During the Viking Age Norse people also took employment as bodyguards and mercenaries, most famously as the Varangian Guard of the Byzantine Empire, and settled e.g. in the British Isles and Normandy. The Norse came to play important roles in the foundation of great nations such as the Russian Empire, France and England.

While Viking raiding pirates, who sacked monasteries and other settlements, were only one aspect of Norse culture, this was what they became known and feared for around Europe at the time, leading to the stereotypical image of the Norse as nothing more than savage, bloodthirsty, barbaric heathens. The Norse of the Viking Age are still generally (incorrectly) referred to as Vikings today.

The Norse were the first Europeans known to have crossed the Atlantic. Iceland was settled during the 9th century, with Reykjavík as its first settlement. In 930 AD the settlers founded the Alþing, the world's oldest surviving parliament.

There were Norse settlements also on Greenland and Newfoundland. Around AD 1000, an expedition led by Leif Eriksson left Greenland, crossed the Labrador Sea, and arrived at the Baffin Island and later Newfoundland, nearly 500 years before the voyages of Christopher Columbus. These settlements went extinct due to worsening climate, infighting within the communities, and conflict with natives

The Norse people are generally understood to have been the last Europeans to be Christianised. The first Christian missionaries arrived in the 9th century, but the church got a foothold only in the 11th century, as the Nordic kings were baptized, and the Swedish, Norwegian and Danish kingdoms were consolidated. Paganism remained in some areas until the 12th–14th century, with many cultural remnants even today

With Christianity and monarchy came stone churches, castles, and the first substantial written records, marking the beginning of historical time in Scandinavia, and the Middle Ages. The pagan Norsemen themselves left behind rather few artifacts, such as rune-stones with short messages (in a writing style similar to instant messages of the 21st century), wooden buildings and ships (of which most are gone), and burial mounds. Therefore, much of our knowledge about the Viking Age is unreliable.

Most Old Norse literature, such as the Edda, an epic poem which contains much of the Norse mythology, as well as the sagas which describe the history of Iceland, were handed down by oral tradition, until written down in the 12th to 15th centuries by writers such as Snorri Sturluson, when Old Norse religion and Viking lifestyle had been replaced by Christianity and more organized kingdoms. Knowledge gaps have to a large extent been filled by European scholars' knowledge of Greco-Roman polytheism. This however is problematic to an extent as the Romans tried to reconcile several different pantheons (starting with their own and the Greek) by giving them a interpretatio romana and thus (sometimes falsely) equating gods to their Roman ones. Therefore the earliest written records about Germanic tribes, which were written by the Romans still color our interpretation of their gods and while there are undoubtedly similarities, they may have become overemphasized first by the Romans and then by classically trained scholars.

Most contemporary records about Vikings were written by their enemies or Christian missionaries, and might describe them as more brutal than they actually were. The silent majority of sedentary Norse farmers were forgotten in the context.

The Old Norse heritage, especially the Viking identity, was revived through a wave of nationalism in the 19th century, though not very true to reality. For instance, real Vikings did not have horned helmets. If you think about it a horned helmet would be an immense disadvantage in a combat situation as your opponent could simply grab the horns to throw away your helmet. Or a weapon that would otherwise be deflected could get caught in the horns, causing significantly more damage.

Since the late 20th century, there are neo-Pagan societies around the Nordic countries. Their practice has however very little in common with either world religions such as Christianity, or other polytheistic tradition, and not taken very seriously. Nordic religion is very much what you make of it. The Viking Age is also a popular theme for reenactment and LARP.

See Nordic history for the Nordic countries past AD 1000.

62°0′0″N 2°0′0″E

Map of Vikings and the Old Norse

• 55.382514.0541671 Ales Stenar (Ale's Stones), Kåseberga (15 km east of Ystad). Nicknamed "the Stonehenge of Sweden", a 67 metre long stone ship formed by 59 large boulders of sandstone, a megalithic monument from the Nordic Iron Age, around 600 AD. You can reach the site by car or by bus from Ystad. There are lots of information signs at the parking lot. Walk the 700 metres up the hill from the parking lot and you will reach the stones. There is no entrance fee to the Stones but a guided tour will cost you 40 SEK per person, free for children younger than 17.. 
• 58.70111111.3411112 Rock Carvings in Tanum. A UNESCO World Heritage Site. Carvings have been made during the Swedish Bronze Age. 
• 69.97666723.2958333 Alta Rock Carvings. A UNESCO World Heritage Site. 

• 59.3347118.090944 Swedish History Museum (Historiska Museet), Narvavägen 13-17 (Stockholm/Östermalm). Open daily 10:00–17:00 May–Sep, Tu–Su 11:00–17:00 and Th 11:00–20:00 Oct–Apr. If you're interested in older Scandinavian history, from the Stone Age to the Vikings, you will want to visit the Swedish History Museum. In the Gold Room, you'll find gold treasures from the Bronze Age to the 16th century. 
• 59.83201718.6498775 Storholmen (Norrtälje). A reconstructed Viking village. 
• 59.35722217.2058336 Stallarholmen Viking Festival (near Strängnäs). Annually the first weekend of July, in a village with plenty of runestones and other Viking-age artifacts. 
• 59.333117.54517 Birka (Ekerö, Stockholm County). 
• 57.6398318.292628 Gotlands Museum, Strandgatan 14 (Visby, Gotland). Open 10:00–18:00. Though Gotland's Golden Age was during the Hanseatic League years from the 13th century, the island was a commercial center long before, possibly the home of the legendary Goths. Entrance: 80–100 SEK. 
• 59.508317.90699 Gunnes gård, Ryttargatan 270 (Upplands Väsby). A reconstructed Viking Age farm, mostly open during summer. 
• 58.29514.775410 Rök Runestone (Near Ödeshög). The world's largest runestone, and the oldest known written record in Sweden. The name of the village Rök has the same roots as rock (named for the stone), which means that Rök Stone is a tautology. 
• 59.858117.644611 Uppsala, Sweden. Once the site of a legendary pagan temple, which brought visitors from all around Scandinavia. The temple was however lost; no-one knows what it looked like, or where it stood. North of the city are some impressive burial mounds. 
• 59.00817.883412 Järnåldershuset i Körunda (North of Nynäshamn). A reconstructed Viking Age longhouse. 

• 60.5264816.7522613 Årsjögård (South of Sandviken). A reconstructed Viking farm. 

• 57.94410812.09623714 Ale Vikingagård. A Viking farm. 
• Vikingatider (Löddeköpinge, some 20 km north of Malmö by E6). A Viking-themed open-air museum. 

• 55.42928112.95313915 Foteviken Museum (South of Malmö). An open-air Viking museum centered around a large Viking settlement reconstruction. The area is an important archaeological site of the Viking Age and the naval Battle of Fotevik was fought around here in 1134. Experimental archaeology, roleplays and season program and engaging activities for the whole family. 

• 64.14019-21.9079416 Reykjavik City Museum: The Settlement Exhibition Reykjavík 871±2 (Minjasafn Reykjavíkur) (Reykjavik). 

• 59.90494510.68440817 The Viking Ship Museum (Vikingskipshuset), Frederiks gate 2, Oslo (Go to the island of Bygdøy). All year. The main attractions here are the Gokstad, Oseberg and Tune Viking ships, all originals. The Viking Ship Museum is part of Museum of Cultural History, itself a department of University of Oslo (UiO). Museum of Cultural History also houses Historical Museum with a permanent exhibition themed around the Norse and Vikings in particular. Tickets include admission to both museums within 48 hours. The Bygdøy island can be reached by road or ferry (in the summer). 

• 68.2413.753118 Lofotr Viking Museum (Lofotr Vikingmuseum), Prestegårdsveien 59, NO-8360 Bøstad (Go to the island of Vestvågøya). May - September. Located on the island of Vestvågøya in the Lofoten archipelago, is a huge reconstructed Viking Chieftains hall situated in a dramatic landscape. The hall holds exhibitions and there are walking paths in the surrounding landscape. Seasonal events and programs with roleplays, Viking feasts, Viking Festival and more. Animals and a smithy. In the summer it is possible to sail with a Viking ship replica nearby. 

• 55.64147612.08042219 Viking Ship Museum, Vindeboder 12 in Roskilde (follow the signs from the cathedral), ☏ +45 4630 0200, [email protected]. 10AM-5PM. A museum with several original viking ships, a viking research center, a harbour with copies of viking ships, and a shipyard making new ships. 80-115 Kr, students 70-100 Kr, children free. 

• 55.61583311.942520 Sagnlandet Lejre (South of Roskilde). March - December. Large open-air Viking and pre-historic center with themes reaching back to the Stone Age as it unfolded in Scandinavia. Located in Lejre, a former royal homeland in the Nordic Iron Age and early Viking Age. Engaging activities for all ages. (updated Aug 2016)

• 55.3940511.2650121 Trelleborg Castle (East of Slagelse). Viking Ring Castle. Small museum and some reconstructed Viking buildings. DKK 100. (updated Jul 2015)

• 56.6233339.77055622 Fyrkat (West of Hobro). Viking Ring Castle and re-constructed Viking houses. Sometimes roleplays and craftsmen. No entry fees. (updated Aug 2016)

• 57.0772229.912523 Lindholm Høje (North of Aalborg). Iron Age and Viking Age burial grounds with hundreds of stone-set grave sites. Museum building. (updated Aug 2016)
• 55.3102788.76611224 Ribe Vikingecenter (At Ribe). Late April to October. Large Viking Center and open-air town museum reconstructed at the former site of a large Viking town. Re-enactments, craftsmen, roleplays and experimental archeology of varying themes throughout the year. Ride Icelandic horses, watch the falconry displays, shoot with bows or learn to fight like the Vikings; there are many activities here suited for all ages and interests. (updated Aug 2016)

• 55.8378.266125 Bork Vikingehavn (In the village of Bork near Skjern and Ringkøbing, at the bottom of a large lagoon). April - October. Viking village and harbour area with Viking ship replicas and a town market. Re-enactments and roleplays that varies throughout the year. Great with kids. (updated Jan 2017)

• 55.7558339.41944426 Jelling Monuments (In Jelling). UNESCO World Heritage Site in Jelling, a Viking Royal residence. Large stone ship monument, burial mounds, runestones and 10th century church. Newly built exploratorium bringing the site's rich history to life. Good for all ages. Free. (updated Jan 2017)

• 54.4915789.56428327 Haithabu (Hedeby) (Just south of Schleswig). Located at the southern end of the Jutland peninsula, Haithabu was once the site of the largest Viking town in Scandinavia. Now an open-air town museum with reconstructed Viking houses. Experimental archeology, craftsmen and engaging roleplays and reenactments of the former life in the Viking Age town. (updated Jan 2017)

• 51.595267-55.53122228 L'Anse aux Meadows National Historic Site (Newfoundland's Great Northern Peninsula, Canada.). Reconstructed Viking camp at this UNESCO World Heritage site of a former Viking settlement. Guides and special events. 

• 55.678056-1.79555629 Lindisfarne, England. The Norse raid at Lindisfarne in AD 793 marks the beginning of the Viking age. 
• 53.957778-1.08055630 JORVIK Viking Centre (York, England), ☏ +44 1904 543400. Daily 10AM-4PM (winter), 10AM-5PM (summer). The world famous JORVIK Viking Centre is a must-see for visitors to the city of York and is one of the most popular visitor attractions in the UK outside London. Welcoming over 16 million visitors since 1984, JORVIK Viking Centre invites visitors to journey through the reconstruction of Viking-Age streets as they would have looked 1000 years ago. £6.25 and upwards. 

• 60.3038-1.268931 Up Helly Aa (Shetland Islands). Europe's largest and most famous fire festival. It takes place on the last Tuesday in January. Over the year the 'Guizer Jarl' or Viking Chief and his squad prepare costumes, weapons and a replica heraldic style Viking Galley and torches. There is a torchlight procession of over 800 participants and then the Galley is ceremoniously burned. Tickets to the halls are by invitation only, but public tickets are available for the Town Hall from the committee. Although the Lerwick festival is the largest and most famous, eleven other fire festivals are held across the islands.