South Asian history

South Asia, also known as the Indian subcontinent, is one of the world's cradles of civilisation, with its first civilisations dating back to approximately 3400 BCE. The influences of South Asian kingdoms spread far and wide, leading to the establishment of Indianised kingdoms in Southeast Asia whose legacies endure to this day.

South Asia has been inhabited since the early Stone Age, over two million years ago. Homo sapiens first arrived on the subcontinent around 73,000–55,000 years ago. Prehistoric sites include Bhimbetka in central India and Mehrgarh in Pakistan.

The Indus Valley Civilisation (3300–1300 BCE) was one of the world's first Bronze Age civilisations and very advanced for its time. It covered much of what is now Pakistan, with Mohenjo-daro and Harappa being two major sites. There are also Indus Valley sites in northwestern India, most notably Dholavira and Lothal.

The Indus Valley had vast trade networks with with Central Asia, Persia, Southern India, Mesopotamia, Ancient Egypt, Dilmun (modern-day Bahrain) and possibly even as far as Crete. Although they have left behind impressive ruins of their cities as reminders of their existence, their writing system has yet to be deciphered, limiting further knowledge of their culture or history. The civilisation declined due to its persistent drought around 1900 BCE, and virtually all Indus Valley cities were abandoned by 1700 BCE.

The Indo-Aryans migrated to the subcontinent from Central Asia around 1800–1500 BCE. Originally pastoral, they later turned into an agricultural society, which eventually gave rise to the janapadas (जनपद), 16 political units in the form of republics or kingdoms that controlled northern and central India.

The Vedic period (1500–500 BCE) is when the Vedas were composed and orally transmitted in an earlier form of Sanskrit. The Vedas are considered the holiest books of Hinduism, and it is thought that many Hindu rituals took shape during the Vedic period. This is when the varṇa (वर्ण) system was developed, which later became the basis of Indian caste system. The four varnas were:

• The Brahmins (ब्राह्मण Brāhmaṇa) were the priests, the highest varna.
• The Kshatriyas (क्षत्रिय) were rulers and warriors.
• The Vaishyas (वैश्य) were peasants, artisans, traders and merchants.
• The Shudras (शूद्र Shūdra) were labourers and servants, the lowest varna.

The population outside the varnas were called avarṇas (अवर्ण), later divided into Dalits and Adivasi.

• The Dalits (दलित Dalita) performed jobs such as cleaning, tanning and dealing with corpses, and were shunned by people with a caste as their work was considered too dirty.
• Although regarded as primitive, the Adivasi (आदिवासी Ādivāsī) were not considered impure by the rest of society and enjoyed greater levels of autonomy for much of South Asian history. Their autonomy and relative isolation were gradually brought to an end during the advent of the Mughal and British empires in the subcontinent.

The post-Vedic period (500–322 BCE) saw the consolidation of janapadas into mahājanapadas (महाजनपद). The literature at the time forms the theoretical basis of classical Hinduism, which ranges from the Upanishads and Purāṇas to the epics Rāmāyaṇa and Mahābhārata.

At the same time, the shramaṇa (ascetic) movement emerged and challenged Vedic culture and orthodoxy. Many new philosophical traditions were formed, from determinist Ājīvika to atheist and materialist Chārvāka, but the two most famous shramaṇa philosophers were without a doubt, Siddhartha Gautama, founder of Buddhism, and Mahavira, founder of Jainism, whose teachings continue to be influential to this day.

A group of Aryans (likely from Bengal or Maharashtra) migrated to Sri Lanka from in the 6th century BCE, becoming the island's dominant ethnic group. The Tamils began to arrive shortly afterwards.

From 530 BCE onwards, the Achaemenid Empire crossed the Hindu Kush mountains in what is now Afghanistan and began conquering large portions of territory in northwestern South Asia. This would be the first of many times that a Persian political presence was established in North India and Pakistan. A few centuries later, the first European presence followed, with Alexander the Great invading and defeating the Kambojas in modern-day Afghanistan and then defeating King Porus (Puru) in the epic Battle of the Hydaspes. Alexander's army reached the Beas River in Himachal Pradesh before revolting and turning back for fear of facing much larger and stronger armies further east, in particular the Nanda Empire. For another couple of centuries, the Greco-Bactrian kingdom and Indo-Greek kingdom blossomed in the northwestern areas, where a hybrid Greek-Buddhist culture thrived. The Indo-Greek kingdoms were pivotal in spreading Mahayana Buddhism through Central and East Asia.

The Maurya Empire (322–185 BCE), the first empire to cover a large area in what is today northern India and Pakistan, was founded by Chandragupta Maurya (reign: 321–298 BCE) in Magadha after overthrowing the Nanda dynasty and defeating the surviving forces of Alexander. The Mauryas ruled from Pataliputra, present-day Patna. It would be expanded further under his son Bindusara (reign: 299–272 BCE).

Ashoka (reign: 268–232 BCE), the third emperor, became deeply remorseful after personally witnessing the destruction and cost in human lives resulting from his conquest of Kalinga (present-day Odisha and North Andhra), following which he renounced any further conquests. He then began sending Buddhist missionaries far and wide, accelerating the spread of the religion to China and Southeast Asia. His reign would also see the erection of some of South Asia's most famous Buddhist monuments, most notably the famed pillars of Ashoka (अशोकस्तम्भ Ashokastambha) that have been found at many sites in northern India and Nepal. The Maurya Empire declined following the death of Ashoka, and Brihadratha (reign: 187–185 BCE), the last emperor, was assassinated by Pushyamitra Shunga. He ruled for 36 years, and the Shunga Empire fractured into numerous small states after his death.

The fall of the Maurya Empire was followed by successive invasions from Greeks (Yavana), Scythians (Shaka), Parthians (Pahlava) and Kushans (Kushāṇa).

• The Indo-Greeks (200 BCE–10 CE) ruled over present-day Pakistan and Afghanistan, and parts of northwestern India. The Indo-Greek culture had a significant influence of Greco-Buddhist art. The empire disintegrated after the death of Menander I.
• The Scythians migrated to India from Central Asia, and the Indo-Scythians (150 BCE–400 CE) ruled over present-day Afghanistan, Pakistan, eastern Iran, and northwestern India. They conquered the Indo-Greek states by 10 CE. They continued to govern as satraps in northern and western India, which began to decline during the 2nd century after the defeat of Indo-Scythians by the Satavahanas and later the Guptas.
• The Indo-Parthians (19–226) declared independence from the Parthian Empire and conquered Indo-Scythian territories. They are known for the construction of the Buddhist monastery Takht-i-Bahi in Mardan, Pakistan. However, the empire declined following Kushan invasions.
• The Kushans (30–375) invaded India from Bactria and ruled over large swathes of Central and South Asia, extending as far as Saketa (present-day Ayodhya) and Sarnath. Kanishka (reign: 127–150) is the most famous emperors of the dynasty.

Meanwhile, the Satavahanas (2nd century BCE–224 CE) ruled over large parts of southern, western and central India and resisted foreign invasions. The empire reached its zenith under Gautamiputra Satakarni (reign: 60–85) and Vashishthiputra Pulamavi (reign: 85–125), and played a vital role in trade and the transfer of ideas and culture to and from northern and southern India. The Satavahanas had different capital cities at different times, most notably Amaravati and Pratishthana (present-day Paithan).

The Gupta Empire (320–550) was the next powerful state to emerge from the Magadha region, with the capital in Pataliputra (present-day Patna). The empire would reach its zenith under Chandragupta I (reign: 320–335), Samudragupta (reign: 335–350) and Chandragupta II Vikramaditya (reign: 375–415), during which the empire was expanded to cover much of northern South Asia, as well as the Bay of Bengal coast till Kanchipuram.

Often called the Golden Age of India, the Gupta period witnessed the resurgence of Hinduism and Sanskrit literature, as well as advancements in astronomy, mathematics and physics, and the spread of Indian culture to much of Asia. Shakuntala, arguably the most famous Indian play, was written by the Gupta-era poet Kalidasa.

Skandagupta repelled a Hunnic invasion from Central Asia in 455, but the expense of the wars drained the empire's resources. The empire declined after his death in 467.

The fall of the Gupta Empire marks the beginning of medieval India (650–1526), and the subcontinent got divided into 40 different states in the early medieval period.

The Pushyabhuti Empire (500–647) emerged from Sthanvishvara (present-day Thanesar) and reached its zenith under Harshavardhana (reign: 590–647), covering northern and eastern India. He defeated the Huns and shifted his capital to Kanyakubja (present-day Kannauj). The peace and prosperity that prevailed made his court a centre of cosmopolitanism, attracting scholars, artists and religious visitors from far and wide. The Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang (Xuanzang) visited the imperial court of Harsha and wrote a very favourable account of him, praising his justice and generosity. Harsha later tried to expand into southern India but was defeated by Chalukya emperor Pulakeshin II.

Harsha's death was followed by a series of conflicts over the control of Kanyakubja between three dynasties, namely the Palas of Bengal, the Pratiharas of Gujarat and the Rashtrakutas of Karnataka. The Tripartite Struggle ultimately resulted in Pratiharas gaining control of Kanyakubja in 816.

While Pingala (3rd–2nd century BCE) was the first to use shūnya (शून्य) for zero, it was Brahmagupta (7th century CE) who described the rules governing the use of the number. His ideas would first spread to the Arab world during the Islamic Golden Age, in which it would be further developed before spreading to Europe through the Islamic conquest of Iberia and Sicily. Brahmagupta also made other important contributions to the field of mathematics, including being the first to solve the quadratic equation.

Islam arrived in South Asia through the conquests between 8th and 12th centuries. The Rashidun Caliphate attacked the subcontinent in 640, and the Umayyad Caliphate captured Sindh and Multan under the military command of Muhammad ibn al-Qasim. Mahmud Ghaznavi invaded Punjab and Gujarat in the 11th century.

During this period, religions like Buddhism and Jainism declined in India, and Buddhism in particular retreated to the Himalayas. However, Hinduism survived and later reinforced itself in areas conquered by Muslims. The Buddha himself was incorporated into the Hindu pantheon, and the Jains became ambivalent about whether they considered themselves Hindus or not.

Southern India gave rise to various imperial dynasties in the early medieval period, most notably the Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas from present-day Karnataka, and the Pallavas and Cholas from present-day Tamil Nadu.

The Chalukya Empire (543–753) reached its zenith under Pulakeshin II (609–642), and it covered large parts of southern and central India, with the capital in Vatapi (present-day Badami). Often called the Golden Age of Karnataka, the Chalukya era saw the birth of efficient administration, overseas trade and commerce and the development of the Chalukya architecture. The empire collapsed as Dantidurga, a feudal lord, overthrew Kirtivarman II, the last Chalukya emperor.

Dantidurga then established the Rashtrakuta Empire (753–982) in Manyakheta. The Rashtrakutas involved into the Tripartite Struggle as they tried to expand into northern India. They patronised Jainism, and Jain monks, mathematicians and scholars contributed significantly during this period. They developed the Kailasa Temple in Ellora and the temple complex of Pattadakal, both are UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

The Pallavas (275–897) rose to prominence after the downfall of the Satavahanas and became a major power under Mahendravarman (reign: 600–630) and Narasimhavarman (reign: 630–668), covering southern Andhra Pradesh and northern Tamil Nadu. The Pallavas ruled from Kanchipuram and patronised Vaishnavism. The Shore Temple in Mamallapuram is the finest example of Pallava architecture. They also developed the Pallava script, the ancestor of Tamil and Khmer scripts.

The Chola Empire (848–1279), based in Thanjavur and later Gangaikonda Cholapuram, reached its zenith under Rajaraja (reign: 985–1014) and Rajendra (reign: 1014–1044), covering virtually the whole of Southern India as well as parts of Eastern India and Southeast Asia. Their patronage of Tamil literature and their zeal for building temples resulted in some of the greatest works of Tamil literature and architecture. The Chola kings were avid builders and regarded temples in their kingdoms as both places of worship and of economic activity. The Brihadisvara Temple in Thanjavur is a prime example of Chola architecture, established in 1010 by Rajaraja.

The Eastern Ganga Empire (493–1434) at its peak covered present-day Andhra Pradesh and Odisha. The Eastern Gangas initially ruled from North Andhra before moving the capital to Kataka (Cuttack) in Odisha. They are best known for building the Sun Temple in Konark and the Jagannath Temple in Puri.

The Pala Empire (750–1161) reached its zenith under Dharmapala (reign: 783–815) and Devapala (reign: 820–850), covering present-day Bangladesh, West Bengal, Bihar, Odisha and Uttar Pradesh. The Palas ruled from Gauda (present-day Gaud-Gour).

Often called the Golden Age of Bengal, the Palas brought stability and prosperity to the region and created outstanding works of arts and architecture. The Charyapada was written by Buddhist Mahasiddhas of tantric tradition, which laid the basis of Bengali, Maithili and Odia languages. Palas built Buddhist monasteries like the Somapura Mahavihara in Paharpur, and patronised universities like Nalanda and Vikramashila. This is when Atisha Dipankara Srijnana (982–1054) travelled to Sumatra and Tibet to preach Buddhism.

The Palas were followed by the Senas (1070–1230) who continued to rule Bengal till the Islamic invasion of Bakhtiyar Khalji. They ruled from Navadvipa (present-day Nabadwip).

in 1192, Muslim leader Muhammad Ghori defeated Rajput ruler Prithviraj Chauhan in the Second Battle of Tarain, solidifying Muslim presence in the heart of India. He left his slave Qutb-ud-din Aibak as his viceroy, and he proclaimed himself the Sultan of Delhi after Ghori's death in 1206, laying the foundation of the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526). It was ruled by five successive dynasties based in Delhi

The sultanate reached its zenith under Alauddin Khalji (reign: 1296–1316), covering a large part of the subcontinent, although the Vijayanagara Empire resisted Muslim conquests in southern India. Khalji also successfully repelled the Mongol invasions in India. On the other hand, Muhammad bin Tughlaq (reign: 1325–1351) is famous for his botched attempt to shift the capital to Daulatabad in present-day Maharashtra, which he rolled back.

The Delhi Sultanate ushered in a period resurgence in South Asian culture, as the Hindu-Muslim fusion culture (Gangā-Jamunī tahzīb) left lasting syncretic monuments in architecture, music, literature, religion and clothing. However, the sultanate also caused large-scale destruction and desecration of temples in the subcontinent. They also built monuments like the Qutb Minar and Feroz Shah Kotla in Delhi.

The death of Firuz Shah Tughlaq (reign: 1351–1388) in 1388 was followed by decades of political instability. Timur (Tamerlane) conquered Delhi in 1398 and left the city in ruins, and over 100,000 war prisoners were killed. Although the Delhi Sultanate was revived under the Sayyid and Lodi dynasties, it was but a shadow of the former.

Meanwhile, Hindu dynasties of Southern India continued to thrive even after Muslim invasions in the North. The fall of the Chola Empire in 1279 was followed by the rise of the Pandya Empire (1216–1618) from Madurai. However, there was an internal strife within the empire, which led to raids and plunder by the Delhi Sultanate under Alauddin Khalji in 1310–11.

The Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1646) at its peak covered almost the entire southern India from Hampi, and its patronage enabled fine arts and literature to reach new heights in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil and Sanskrit, with topics such as astronomy, mathematics, medicine, fiction, musicology, historiography and theatre gaining popularity. The Carnatic music evolved into its current form during the Vijayanagara era.

The Bahmani Sultanate (1347–1527) was founded after a rebellion against the Sultan of Delhi, and it remained perpetually at war with Vijayanagara. They ruled from Gulbarga (present-day Kalaburagi) and later Bidar. The sultanate split into five after a factional strife in 1490. Despite this, the Deccan sultanates together successfully defeated Vijayanagara in the Battle of Talikota in 1565.

In 1498, Vasco da Gama arrived at Calicut (present-day Kozhikode) in southern India via Cape Route. It was then ruled by the Zamorin of Calicut (1124–1806), the vassal dynasty that established the city as one of the most important trading ports in India.

The Bengal Sultanate or Shahi Bangala (1352–1576) was the dominant power of eastern India, known for its religious pluralism where non-Muslim communities co-existed peacefully. It was ruled by five successive dynasties, and the sultanate at its peak under Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah (reign: 1415–1416 and 1418–1433) covered a large part of the Plains and North-Eastern India. The Bengal Sultanate left a strong architectural legacy across Bangladesh and West Bengal.

The Gajapati Empire (1434–1541) was a major Hindu power in eastern India during the late medieval period. The Gajapatis ruled from Kataka (Cuttack) in Odisha and covered the entire Bay of Bengal coast at its peak, from present-day West Bengal to northern Tamil Nadu. They were great patrons of art and had continuous rivalry with Vijayanagara. The influence of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu led to emperor Prataparudra to renounce conquests and retire as an ascetic. Govinda Vidyadhara took this opportunity to usurp the throne of Kataka.

In 1526, Zahiruddin Babur, the former ruler of the Ferghana Valley, defeated Ibrahim Khan Lodi (reign: 1517–1526), the last Sultan of Delhi, following the First Battle of Panipat. He then established the Mughal Empire, which at its peak covered almost the entire subcontinent. Although there were 20 Mughal emperors in total, only the first six are the most important in South Asian history: Babur, Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb.

However, Afghan warrior Sher Shah Suri defeated Humayun in 1540 and brought his territory under the Sur Empire (1538–1557). Sher Shah Suri is known for developing "Sadak-e-Azam" (Great Road), the predecessor of Grand Trunk Road (GT Road), from Sonargaon to Kabul. He also built monuments like the Rohtas Fort in Pakistan and modernised the Purana Qila in Delhi.

Humayun returned to India from exile in 1555, but his former empire was only partly restored. He died in 1556 after falling down the stairs of his library, leaving his son Akbar to inherit his throne as an adolescent. He led the Second Battle of Panipat the same year under regent Bairam Khan, and defeated Hemu Vikramaditya, the Hindu general of the Sur Empire. Akbar eventually expanded the empire to cover almost the entire subcontinent north of the Godavari River. He founded the Agra Fort and Fatehpur Sikri.

Meanwhile, the Rajputs resisted Mughal expansions in present-day Rajasthan, and their bravery is celebrated in ballads all over the forts. In particular, Maharana Pratap (reign: 1572–1597), the ruler of Chittorgarh, spent years in exile fighting Akbar. The Rajputs were eventually subdued, and the Mughal military had a high proportion of Rajput officers, although some Rajput rebellions still occurred during the reign of later emperors.

Shah Jahan (reign: 1628–1658) ushered in the golden age of Mughal architecture, producing monumental gems like the Taj Mahal and the Red Fort. He also rebuilt the Lahore Fort.

Aurangzeb (reign: 1658–1707) seized the throne and imprisoned Shah Jahan in Agra till his death in 1666. He is considered the most intolerant, brutal and bigoted Mughal emperor, as he reinstated the Jizya tax and encouraged conversion to Islam. He annexed the Deccan powers of Bijapur and Golconda, which took a toll on the Mughal treasury, and Aurangzeb's absence in Delhi led to a severe decline in governance, while stability and economic output in the Deccan plummeted.

Founded by Guru Nanak in Punjab in the 15th century, Sikhism initially did not come into conflict with the Mughals till the execution of the fifth guru Arjan in 1606, and the ninth guru Tegh Bahadur in 1675, leading to militarisation of the Sikhs. Conflict between the Sikhs and the Mughals was one of the causes for the eventual decline of the empire. Meanwhile, Shivaji (1630–1680) founded the Maratha Empire (1674–1818) and challenged Mughal expansion in the Deccan. His bravery is still celebrated widely across the present-day Indian state of Maharashtra, with Shiv Jayanti (23 February) being a state holiday.

The death of Aurangzeb in 1707 was followed by a period of political instability. The later Mughals began appointing semi-autonomous viceroys in Arcot, Awadh, Bengal and Hyderabad to ease administration. However, many of them became independent states in the 1740s.

In 1739, Persian emperor Nader Shah (reign: 1736–1747) captured and sacked Delhi, carrying away treasures like the Koh-i-Noor and the Peacock Throne. In 1757, Afghan ruler Ahmad Shah Durrani sacked Delhi. Meanwhile, the Maratha Empire under the Peshwas, expanded into a short-term confederacy covering a large part of South Asia from Attock to Cuttack.

Southern India was dominated by five Deccan sultanates after the fall of Vijayanagara: Ahmednagar, Berar, Bidar, Bijapur and Golconda. Ahmednagar took over Berar in 1574, and Bijapur took over Bidar in 1619. The Mughals gradually took over Ahmednagar in 1596–1636, and Golconda and Bijapur in 1686–87. The newly-acquired territories in Southern India and the Deccan were organised into the provinces (subah) of Arcot, Aurangabad, Berar, Bidar, Bijapur, Golconda and Sira.

In 1710, Saadatullah Khan (reign: 1710–1732) was appointed the Nawab of Arcot. In 1713, Mir Qamar-ud-din Khan (reign: 1713–1715 and 1724–1748) was appointed the Viceroy of the Deccan under the title "Nizam-ul-Mulk" (Order of the Land), covering the provinces of Aurangabad, Berar, Bidar, Bijapur and Golconda.

The Mughals captured Bengal though a series of campaigns from 1574 to 1666. However, while they defeated the Sultan of Bengal in the Battle of Raj Mahal in 1576 under Akbar, the Baro Bhuyans fiercely resisted Mughal expansion with guerrilla tactics and leveraging local knowledge. It was not until the death of Isa Khan in 1599 that the Mughals began to establish more comprehensive control over Bengal.

The Ahom Kingdom (1228–1826), a major power in North-Eastern India for six centuries, successfully defended the region from Mughal expansion under Lachit Borphokan. The Kingdom of Manipur (1110–1949) was longest kingdom to rule over the region.

By 1605, the Mughal territories in Eastern India were organised into the provinces (subah) of Bengal, Bihar and Odisha. In 1717, Murshid Quli Khan (reign: 1717–1740) was appointed the Nawab of Bengal (plus Bihar and Odisha) with the capital in Murshidabad.

European traders started visiting India beginning in the late 16th century. Prominent among these were the British, Danish, Dutch, French and the Portuguese. Although it was the British who ruled most of South Asia, parts of the subcontinent were ruled by other European nations and independent kingdoms.

The British East India Company made Calcutta their headquarters in 1772. They also established subsidiary cities like Bombay and Madras. Calcutta later went on to become 'the second city of the empire after London'. By the 19th century, the British had, one way or the other assumed political control of virtually all of India, though the Portuguese, the Dutch and the French too had their enclaves along the coast. The British would send Indian labourers, policemen and soldiers all over the Empire, resulting in the establishment of Indian diaspora communities all over the world.

There was an uprising by South Asian rulers in 1857 which was suppressed, but which prompted the British government to take over from the Company and make India a part of the empire. This period of rule by the crown, 1858–1947, was called the British Raj. It was a period in which some Indians converted to Christianity, though forcible conversions ended in the British Raj after 1859, and Queen Victoria's proclamation promised to respect the religious faiths of Indians.

Resistance to British colonialism, led by Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose, Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru etc., led to India's independence on 15 August 1947. The same year, British India was partitioned into Hindu-majority India and Muslim-majority Pakistan.

The partition of India eventually proved to be a major disaster in South Asian history. Several million people were uprooted, Muslims migrated from their homes in areas that would be part of India to live in Pakistan, with Hindus and Sikhs moving the other way. Mobs attacked migrants going both ways; most estimates of the death toll are a few hundred thousand, but some say well over a million.

Neither the Indian nor the Pakistani government was happy with the border as the British defined it; some areas, notably Kashmir, are still disputed today and the two countries have fought several wars over these disputes. India continues to experience occasional terrorist attacks, many of which are widely believed to originate in Pakistan and be ordered or assisted by its military-intelligence complex.

In 1948, Burma and Ceylon gained independence from Britain, which became Myanmar and Sri Lanka respectively. The Maldives became independent in 1965.

In 1950, the Dominion of India was declared a republic after adopting its constitution, while Pakistan did the same in 1956. Pakistan initially had two parts and the eastern part spun off from Pakistan after a bloody war of independence to become Bangladesh in 1971.

In 1953, the Portuguese colony of Dadra and Nagar Haveli was incorporated to India, while the French government gave off their South Asian colonies to India in 1956. In 1961, the Portuguese colonies of Goa, Daman and Diu were incorporated to India.

• South Asian cuisine — the food of India and surrounding countries is an important part of the region’s culture.